Long Term Financing of Companies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Long Term Financing of Companies - Essay Example Financing is necessary for a company to continue its business or improve the business. Mainly financing is necessary for the operations, continuing the day to day activities or expansion of a company. Financing may be of short term or long term. Short term financing is necessary for meeting the need of working capital when long term financing is necessary for a company mainly for expansion of its. If the firm wants to expand its business area then they have to plan for a long term period, because the expansion of a company is not a matter of some days. Then the company needs the long term financing. Usually a company obtains various sources for getting long term financing as there are various sources available in the market for long term financing. The cost of capital is different for the different sources. A company when obtain for different sources of financing then they found for the most suitable sources for financing from the available bunch. This paper is an attempt for analyzi ng the various sources of long term financing and find the type of long term financing is obtain by different sectors. Long Term Financing Sources and its Advantages and Disadvantages Long term sources of financing are needed for a company for getting the needed finance for generally over a year. Long term financing is necessary for expansion of the business.... But the opportunity cost of the source is much as the factor of paying the dividends to the shareholders is there. The retained earnings are also fluctuating as it depend on the company’s profit after tax, so a company can’t depend only on this source for long term financing. All types of companies use this source of financing. Depreciation Charges: The depreciation charges of a company is charged on the assets, but there is no cash outflow for the company but depreciation charge is calculated for the calculation of a company’s profit. As the depreciation save the tax charge on income so the tax savings can be invested again by the company for generating return (Shim and Siegel, 1999, p.198). The cost of capital of the source depreciation charged is minimal which is an advantage for the company but the amount generated for reinvestment is not so much, it is even less than the retained earnings generally. Al types of companies use this internal source of financing . Equity Shares: The equity shares issued by a company in the stock exchange are a large source of investing. The companies issue shares through an underwriter to the market. The investors who invest in the company are thereby become the owner of the company (Hamer and Hamer, 2008, p.4). The company management can generate finance by issuing the stock as an Initial Public Offering (IPO) and Follow on Private Offering (FPO). The advantages to going public and generating the capital from the market is that the cost of capital is not much for using the sources (Draho, 2004, p.3). The companies have to pay dividend to the shareholders of the company when the shares are ordinary or in the form of preference shares. The companies have to provide dividends

Letter from Birmingham Jail Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Letter from Birmingham Jail - Essay Example In contrast, the unjust laws disrespect people’s moral autonomy, as well as, personality by placing a particular group in the society superior to the other. In effect, morality is paramount and forms the basis that dictates the obedience of the law. The laws should not only be concerned with the political authority, but also the moral judgment about wrong and right in a given situation (Pollock, 2012). Any law that violates the universal morals does not deserve obedience. Just people need laws that protect their moral, as well as, constitutional rights. As King (1963) notes, people have the right to disobey the unjust laws if compelling moral grounds exist to underscore the action. No one should deprive the laws of moral sentiments, and any action to remove morality from the legislation renders them unjust and mostly oppressive. In disobeying the law, people should invoke a higher duty such as conscience and morality. In this respect, invoking morality will justify the people’s decisions to disobey the unjust laws that tend to infringe upon their moral autonomy. The implication is that just people have the responsibility and freedom over their moral decisions to fail to comply with the laws, which undermine their human personality. Indeed, the shared moral standards should inform the people’s real sense of obligation to the laws. Pollock (2012) argues that the people’s preoccupation to obey laws should depict a striking balance b etween the moral autonomy and obligation to the state. Critics might argue that false perception of the law as a total representation of the morals exists. The society has a blurred borderline between the ethics and the laws. Hence, morality entails doing what the law dictates for fear of the consequences of the disobedience such as the punishment. However, cynics should note that people make the laws, and they have a moral obligation to disobey the legislation

Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 5

Report - Essay Example With this concern, the report intends to examine the measures that can be used for reviewing the performance of Tesco. In this regard, various performance measures relating to finance along with resource, customer satisfaction indicators and innovation along with market development will be discussed. Gross along with net profit margin and market share acts as effective financial along with resource based performance measures, through which the overall performance of the companies such as Tesco can be determined. Theoretically, the net profit margin depicts the ability of the management to control and meet the needs of indirect costs. It also reveals the suitability of businesses to perform effectively in future. In this regard, the net profit margin should be higher in order to depict a better future profitability and performance index (Needham & Dransfield, 2000). For instance, the financial performance of Tesco can be determined or measured with the assistance of certain financial statements that prepare by the company on an annual basis. It has been apparently noted that the company prepares different financial statements in order to measure the performance of the Group in a suitable manner (Tesco PLC, 2013). In this regard, it can be apparently observed that the net margin o f the company decreased substantially in the year 2013 as compared to the year 2012. This can be justified with the help of the following table. As per the above table, it can be clearly understood that the gross margin of Tesco declined in the year 2012 as compared to the year 2013 due to excessive costs incurred by the company while selling it various products or services to the worldwide customers. It is worth mentioning that the financial as well as the resource performance of the company can also be evaluated based on market share. It is obvious that a company

Sickle Cell Disease Essay Example for Free

Sickle Cell Disease Essay Sickle-Cell Anemia is a genetic blood disorder caused by the presence of an abnormal form of hemoglobin. These hemoglobin molecules tend to aggregate after unloading oxygen forming long, rod-like structures that force the red cells to assume a sickle shape. Unlike normal red cells, which are usually smooth and malleable, the sickle red cells cannot squeeze through small blood vessels. When the sickle cells block small blood vessels, the organs are deprived of blood and oxygen. This leads to periodic episodes of pain and damages the vital organs. Sickle red cells die after only about 10 to 20 days. Instead of the usual 120 days because they cannot be replaced fast enough, the blood is chronically short of red cells, causing anemia. The gene for sickle cell anemia must be inherited from both parents for the illness to occur in children. A child with only one copy of the gene may have sickle-cell traits but no symptoms of illness. Normally healthy blood cells are round shaped blood cells, they move through small blood vessels to carry oxygen to all parts of the body. People with sickle-cell disease their blood cells are not round they are become hard and sticky and look like a C-shaped farm tool called a â€Å"sickle†. The sickle cells die early, which causes a constant shortage of red blood cells. Also, when they travel through small blood vessels, they get stuck and clog the blood flow. This can cause pain and other serious problems like infection, acute chest syndrome and stroke. Some of the common names for sickle-c ell disease are HbS disease, Hemoglobin S Disease, SCD, Sickle cell disorders, Sickle disorder due to hemoglobin S, and Anemia-Sickle Cell; Hemoglobin SS Disease (Hb SS). Sickle-cell disease is mostly inherited by African Americans, Mediterranean countries; Greece, Turkey, and Italy; the Arabian Peninsula, India, and Spanish-speaking regions; South America, Central America, and parts of the Caribbean. The three most common forms of the disease in the United States are Hemoglobin SS or sickle cell anemia, Hemoglobin SC disease, and Hemoglobin sickle beta-thalassemia (a form of Cooleys anemia). â€Å"Sickle cell disease is the most common inherited blood disorder in the United States, affecting 70,000 to 80,000 Americans. The disease is estimated to occur in 1 in 500 African Americans and 1 in 1,000 to 1,400 Hispanic Americans.† A person with the sickle cell trait does not have (and will never have) sickle cell disease. However, the presence of the trait may impact his/her children. A person with the trait carries one abnormal  hemoglobin gene inherited from one parent (S, E, C, etc.) and one normal hemoglobin gene from the other parent (type A ). Typically, sickle cell trait is the presence of hemoglobin AS.Sickle cell disease is not contagious; you cannot catch it. You inherit it from your parents. If, for example, one parent has normal hemoglobin ( type AA) and the second parent has abnormal hemoglobin ( type AS, or the sickle cell trait), there is a 50% chance that each child will have the sickle cell trait, but they will not have sickle cell disease ( type SS). The symptoms of sickle-cell disease usually occur after the age of 4 months. Painful episodes called crises- lasting hours to days; cause pain in the bone of the back, long bones, and chest. When the anemia becomes more severe, symptoms may be fatigue, paleness, rapid heart rate, shortness of breath, and yellowing of the eyes and skin (jaundice). Younger children with sickle cell anemia have attacks of abdominal pain. Abdominal pain is pain that you feel anywhere between your chest and groin. This is often referred to as the stomach region or belly. These are the symptoms, and sometimes crises can happen once a year or few times every year. The following symptoms may occur because small blood vessels may become blocked by the abnormal cells painful and prolonged erection (priapism), poor eyesight or blindness, problems with thinking or confusion caused by small strokes, and Ulcers on the lower legs (in adolescents and adults). Over time, the spleen no longer works. As a result, people with sickle cell anemia may have symptoms of infections like Bone infection (osteomyelitis), Gallbladder infection (cholecystitis), Lung infection (pneumonia), and Urinary tract infection. Other symptoms may include delayed growth and puberty, and painful joints caused by arthritis. Tests commonly performed to diagnose and monitor patients with sickle cell anemia are Bilirubin, Blood oxygen, Complete blood count (CBC), Hemoglobin electrophoresis, Serum creatinine, Serum potassium, and Sickle cell test. The treatments for people with sickle-cell disease are blood transfusions (may also be given regularly to prevent stroke), pain medicines, plenty of fluids, and Hydroxyurea (Hydrea). Hydroxyurea is a medicine that may help reduce the number of pain episodes (including chest pain and difficulty breathing) in some people. Antibiotics to prevent bacterial infections, which are common in children with sickle cell disease dialysis or kidney transplant for kidney disease, counseling for psychological complications,  gallbladder removal in people with gallstone disease, hip replacement for avascular necrosis of the hip, surgery for eye problems, treatment for overuse or abuse of narcotic pain medicines, and wound care for leg ulcers. For treatment some of the vaccinations are Haemophilus influenza vaccine (Hib), Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV), and Pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPV). There are a few common organizations that support sickle-cell they are American Sickle Cell Anemia Association, National Heart, Blood and Lung Institution, Sickle Cell Disease Association of America, U.S Center of Disease Control Prevention. Many people have been affected by S ickle-Cell Anemia and only a couple are cured. Although African Americans have a high occurrence of Sickle-Cell Anemia (1 in 500 African Americans), many other nationalities suffer from the disease. Sickle-Cell Anemia affects 8 out of 100,000 people worldwide. Sickle-Cell Anemia should start to be noticed, if not throughout the entire world, then at least America. The more awareness there is for this disease, the fewer death rates we will have as a country. Bibliography http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000527.htm http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003120.htm http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/sickle-cell-disease http://kidshealth.org/parent/medical/heart/sickle_cell_anemia.html#a_Causes_of_Sickle_Cell_Disease http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/sicklecell/treatments.html

Supporting Pupils On Autistic Spectrum In Mainstream Classroom Education Essay

Supporting Pupils On Autistic Spectrum In Mainstream Classroom Education Essay Introduction The National Autistic Society (NAS) describes Autism as: A lifelong developmental disability that affects how a person communicates with, and relates to, other people and the world around them. It  is a spectrum condition, which means that, while all people with autism share certain areas of difficulty, their condition will affect them in different ways.  Asperger syndrome is a form of autism. (NAS, website) Autistic Spectrum Disorders (ASD) can have an effect on the ability of a child to learn and participate in the classroom, however, there are ways to ensure autistic children learn and participate within the mainstream environment. As a teacher of Support for Learning, I am working in both the Primary and Secondary sectors. My role involves supporting children with additional needs within a mainstream school, either in the classroom, one-to-one or in small groups. The pupils I support display an array of additional needs including those exhibiting autistic tendencies. Looking at a case study of a child within a mainstream primary school exhibiting autistic tendencies, this assignment discusses the topic of ASD; the historical aspects, characteristics, theories and diagnosis, policy and legislation, and support provided. The Case Study Child Pupil N is 10 years old, and in primary 5. When the family moved from England to Scotland he was held back for a year in nursery due to delayed development. He had communication and language difficulties which were amplified when he started nursery in a Scottish school, not only did he have difficulties understanding spoken language, but he now had to contend with the Scottish accent as well. To gain some background information, I designed a questionnaire for parents to complete. The questionnaire was carried out verbally during a telephone conversation with Ns mother. During the conversation, she also clarified some of the questions in more detail. (See appendix 1) As shown in the questionnaire, and from my own observations, some of the characteristics displayed by pupil N, which are identified in the triad of impairments, include: lack of eye contact, poor social skills, difficulty in forming friendships with peers, delayed speech although he now speaks fluently, however he does have difficulty in understanding language; liking for sameness, a special interest in tractors, does not initiate and sustain conversation, has had frequent diarrhoea and issues with going to the toilet, which seems to have improved as he has grown older; he can also occasionally, swear and display aggressive behaviour towards others, and gets in trouble for this at school. The Historical aspects of Autism Research in Autism dates back to 1938, though Wing (1993) suggests there were accounts in literature prior to this, but states there is no information as to the occurrence of autism before the second half of the twentieth century, however Volkmar, et al (2005) suggests that in 1867 Henry Maudsley possibly made the first step toward a classification by grouping children with peculiar, unhinged behavior under the label insane. He suggested a number of subgroups, one of which he called instinctive insanity, which could indicate that some of the children he discussed had ASD. Studies carried out by Kanner in 1943 involved children identified as having conditions which were different and unique from anything recognized so far. Around the same time, but independently, Asperger also carried out work in the same field. All of the children in Kanners study were different but displayed very similar characteristics; the common elements found in these children included a lack of emotion, repetitive actions, speech formation problems, ability to manipulate various objects, learning difficulties, and their levels of intelligence. Kanner noted the symptoms were very similar to those of schizophrenia however, they appeared to manifest at a much earlier age. He assumed that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.. these children had come into the world with an innate inability to form the usual, biologically provided affective contact with people. (Kanner, 1943 p250) Asperger discovered many individuals had similar problems with social skills and repetitive actions but did not have trouble with learning or their cognitive abilities. Some showed exceptional talents or abilities that were considered outstanding. Both Kanners 1943 study Autistic Disturbances in Affective Contact and Aspergers 1944 study Autistic Psychopathy in Childhood are important in early autism research, though Aspergers study was not translated into English until 1991 by Dr. Uta Frith. (Long, B. 2007, website) Both Kanner and Asperger described autism as a distinctive developmental disorder that had not been clinically described before; people suffering from it were unduly considered to be mentally handicapped. (Bogdashina. 2005) Defining Autism There has been much research, and varying theories in the field of autism since the studies of Kanner and Asperger, however there does not appear to be a single core deficit, nor is there a cure. Authors such as Happe (1994), Powell and Jordan (1997), Sicile-Kira (2003), Bogdashina (2005), and Lathe (2006), discuss the most universally used criteria for defining and diagnosing autism which is known as Wings Triad of Impairments. The Triad of Impairments is based on certain behavioural characteristics, described by Schreibman (2005) as deficits, which are exhibited in three main areas: impairments of social interaction, impairments in social communication and impairments in imagination. Impairments of Social Interaction Wing (2003) suggests this can be shown in different ways, and groups them into four categories: The aloof group Probably the most common social impairment in young children; behaving as if other people do not exist, and not responding when spoken to; appearing to have empty expressionless faces unless displaying extreme anger, distress or joy. They tend not to want to be touched, and do not make eye contact; rather they look past or straight through you. They show no sympathy if you are in pain or upset, and seem to be in a world of their own. For some it may change as they grow older, but for others it may continue throughout life. The passive group Children and adults are not completely cut off and accept approaches from others; however they do not instigate social interaction; also having difficulties with eye contact but can often make contact when reminded. Passive children are happy to join in games but can often be left out when games change. Generally, their behaviour is less problematic although some can display disturbed behaviour during adolescence. The active but odd group People in this category can initiate contact with others but this can appear odd and inappropriate, and tends to be with those in charge rather than their peers. They appear to be concerned with their own needs rather than those of others. When not getting the attention they want, they can behave aggressively towards others, due to the lack of understanding of social interaction. The over-formal, stilted group This type of behaviour usually manifests in later adolescence, in those who are more able, with a good level of language. They tend to be over polite and formal, and try very hard to be well behaved. However, they do not fully understand the rules of social interaction and have difficulty adapting their behaviour to different situations. Impairments of social communication Baron-Cohen (2008) claims that if children do not produce single words by the age of two, or phrased speech by the age of three; they are identified as having language delay. Pupil N did not speak until nursery age, even then, he could not form the words properly and was referred for Speech and Language Therapy (SALT). Wing (2003), suggests that all children and adults with ASD have communication problems; however Baron-Cohen (2008) suggests there is no speech and language delay with Asperger Syndrome. Wing (2003) states that speech and language delays are common, some may never speak at all. Those who do speak often start by repeating words echolalia, spoken by others. Echolalia can be immediate or delayed. With delayed echolalia, they can often repeat something randomly that they have heard previously, which could be some time ago. The level of understanding varies; most have some understanding although this can be limited. They also have difficulties in understanding non-verbal communication such as nodding ones head, and facial expressions. A major characteristic is that they take things literally, for example, if they were told it is raining cats and dogs, they would expect to see cats and dogs falling from the sky, therefore care is needed when speaking to a person with an ASD; figures of speech can be taken at face value, leading to stress and terror. The majority of people with ASD have an odd monotonous tone when speaking, which can be inappropriate, they can occasionally speak too loud or too quiet; some often use their special voice which is different from their own. Impairments of Imagination Children with ASD are unable to develop imaginative play. Some do show evidence of imaginative play; however it tends to be very repetitive, doing the same thing over and over again. Some may even copy a character they have seen on television or in a book, or a non-living object, but also in a repetitive manor. Other repetitive activities include tapping, tasting, smelling, feeling and scratching different surfaces, and some can inflict self-injury in the form of scratching, biting and head-banging. (Wing, 2003) Other features suggested by Sicile-Kira, (2003) include: Not liking change in routine or environment Not reaching developmental milestones Only eating certain foods Eating or chewing unusual things Lacking of common sense Not understanding simple requests Frequent diarrhoea, upset stomach or constipation. Theories in Autism Theoretical approaches to research in Autism include neuropathological and neuropsychological. Neuropathological Neuropathology relates to the central nervous system and brain. Discussed by Frith (2003) and Feinstein (2010), Kemper and Bauman carried out a study which led to autism being treated as a biological disorder. They found that cells in the hippocampus, subiculum and amygdala; parts of the brain associated with emotions, space, behaviour and memory (OMara et al, 2009), were decreased in size and closely packed, and suggested the irregularity occurred in the cells during early development. Anthony Bailey noted that four out of six people with autism had unusually large heavy brains, and Dr. Eric Courchesne reported that he found evidence of rapid brain overgrowth in the first year, in infants who develop autism. Dr Manuel Casanova investigated mini-columns of neurons; the smallest unit of cells capable of processing information, and suggested they are smaller and more abundant in autistic people. Gillberg, Kemper and Bauman were interested in both sides of the brain as the left side deals with linguistic performance, while the right side deals with non-verbal communications such as, gestures and emotional expression, which are impaired in autism. (Feinstein, 2010) Neuropsychological Theories The non-social features that have been explained by researchers include: theory of mind, weak central coherence, executive dysfunction and joint attention. Theory of Mind Theory of mind is the ability to impute mental states to self and others. (Doherty 2008) Baron-Cohen, Leslie and Frith (1985) suggested that autistic children do not develop theory of mind (ToM). Research was carried out by using the Sally Anne test (See appendix 2) which suggested that they suffer from mind blindness and cannot envisage what others might think. ToM attracted criticism due to the fact that dolls were used instead of real people. Baron-Cohen cited by Feinstein (2010), stated that the test produced similar results after being carried out again with real people. Weak central coherence Normally developing people process information by looking at and understanding the whole picture. Frith and Happà © cited by Rajendran and Mitchell (2007), suggest people with autism process the component parts individually rather than the whole; indicating that they have weak global coherence. Shah and Frith tested central coherence using the Wechsler block design (See appendix 3), which requires children to use separate blocks to construct an entire design. They found that autistic children produced a higher score than others in the test, and were also faster in constructing the design. (Frith 1985, Shah and Frith, 1993) Frith, cited by Rajendran and Mitchell (2007), argues that autistic people perform better on these tasks because they lack the understanding of global form. Executive Dysfunction Executive function (EF) is defined as the ability to sustain problem-solving activities for achieving future goals. EF is used for activities such as planning, organizing, strategizing and paying attention to and remembering details. Researchers have noted that symptoms that are not explained by ToM can resemble specific brain injury symptoms, which has led to Ozonoff theorizing that autism could be explained as a deficit in EF. However, different researchers have produced differing results, which suggests that not all autistic individuals exhibit EF problems, also, these difficulties are seen in other disorders and not exclusive to autism. (Rajendran and Mitchell 2007) Joint attention Joint attention is the way in which one draws somebodys attention to a stimulus by gazing or pointing. This developmental milestone emerges around six months of age. Charman (2003) suggests impairments in joint attention are among the earliest signs of the disorder. There has been other hypothesis suggested as causing autism such as the triple MMR (measles, mumps, rubella) vaccine, implicated by Dr Andrew Wakefield, which is administered to children at eighteen months, around the same time that autism is most commonly detected. Rutter, cited by Feinstein (2010), stated that although research has pointed out that there is no link between autism and the MMR, there are still some parents who choose to have individual vaccinations for their children. Although many theories have been connected with the origins of autism, the core deficits of the disorder are still unknown. Kemper, cited by Feinstein (2010), stated: there is not going to be one cause or treatment. Diagnosis Sicile-Kira, (2003) states that there is no medical test to diagnose ASD, and any diagnosis is based on observation of behavioural characteristics. Medical practitioners base the diagnosis on guidelines set out in the World Health Organizations International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10), which requires that all three of the triad of impairments are present at 36 months of age; or the American Psychiatric Associations system the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-IV) and (DSM-IV-TR), which also requires that the age of onset should be recorded. (AWARES.org, website) The ICD-10 specifies that at least 8 of the 16 specified items must be fulfilled, which should include 3 from Impairments of reciprocal social interaction, 2 from Qualitative abnormalities in communication, and 2 from Restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns of behaviour, interests and activities. The diagnosis for Asperger Syndrome is similar to Autism however; the diagnosis requires that single words should have developed by two years of age or earlier. (World Health Organization, 1993) The Criteria from DSM-IV specifies there should be a total of six or more items which includes 2 from Qualitative impairments in social interaction, 1 from each of the other areas. For Asperger Syndrome, the DSM-IV also states there should be no significant impairments in language communication. (American Psychiatric Association, Internet source) The guidelines for diagnosing autism differ from each other in that the ICD-10 requires a minimum of 8 manifestations for a diagnosis, whereas, the DSM-IV only requires 6. It appears that a person may or may not be diagnosed with autism, depending on which criteria are used. After many conversations with researchers, Feinstein (2010) suggests that there has been an increase in the prevalence of Autism, possibly due to the expansion of the spectrum and improvements in diagnostic tools. Dorothy Bishop re-tested adults diagnosed with speech and language disorder as children, but not autism, which resulted in a quarter of them being re-diagnosed with autism. (Feinstein, 2010) Criticisms of diagnostic criteria Cited by Feinstein (2010), researchers such as Lorna Wing, Dr Patricia Howlin, Christopher Gillberg, and Dr Fred Volkmar who was on the DSM-IV classification drafting committee, have criticized the ICD-10 and DSM-IV, especially as far as Asperger syndrome is concerned. They suggest it is very feigned; both criteria state that spoken language must be normal for an Asperger syndrome diagnosis, when in fact; Asperger originally stated that peculiarities of speech and language were a key feature. Fombonne (1999) suggests that there are more boys than girls diagnosed with autism; on the other hand, Dr Judith Gould cited by Hill (2009) argues that doctors are failing to diagnose thousands of girls who have Aspergers syndrome, and suggests that girls are not being noticed in the first place, or if they ask for help, they are being turned away and are often rejected when referred for diagnosis. Pupil N appears to display many signs of autism but does not have a medical diagnosis; however he has been diagnosed with speech and language delay, and health issues such as toileting. HMIE (2006), state that for best practice, education authorities should not limit support only to those with a formal ASD medical diagnosis. There are many reasons why N may not have an official diagnosis. Autism is very complex; therefore it is possible that the behaviours he displays fit into more than one category, or none at all, depending on any criteria used, which can make it difficult to ascertain. Also, diagnosis can be time consuming and perhaps stressful for the child and the parents. A survey carried out by Osborne and Reed (2008) examined how communication between parents and professionals concerning ASD and its diagnosis, could be facilitated; most parents wanted a quicker and easier process, and would prefer the procedure to be more consistent in content and structure. They also called for better professional training and awareness about ASD, especially regarding the information that professionals possess, and the interpersonal skills of some professionals. Sicile-Kira, (2003) suggests if parents have concerns about their child, it is important to seek advice from a medical professional who is experienced in ASD, and acquire a diagnosis as early as possible to gain access to services. Another reason which may prevent a parent from requesting a medical diagnosis is the stigma of labeling a child. Labeling can suggest a low overall attainment compared with their peers, have an effect on the attitude and behaviour of teachers towards children, and affect the children themselves. (Hart, et al, 2004) Authors such as Sicile-Kira, (2003) and Ho, (2004) comment that labels ascertain the eligibility for people to access benefits and services, however, Ho (2004) also argues that it provides an excuse for school officials to assume a medical model of learning disabilities, and ignore other problems in our educational and social systems that give rise to a range of students learning difficulties. Policy and Legislation In 2001, Scottish Ministers commissioned the Public Health Institute of Scotland (PHIS, now NHS) to carry out a needs assessment of services for people with ASD in Scotland. The aim was to look at current service provision, and provide advice on how the services could better meet the needs of both children and adults with ASD. The report suggested a lack of understanding amongst service providers of the nature of ASD and made 32 recommendations, resulting in the National ASD Reference Group being set up by The Scottish Executive in June 2002, to identify priorities to support the development of good practice across a range of services. (PHIS, 2001) The Scottish Executive (2006) suggested an audit of training in each NHS board with a view to addressing training needs and gaps, this corroborates the earlier discussion that parents suggested there is a need for more professional training and awareness about ASD, however, the Scottish Executive (2006) only discussed training for health practitioners and not education. In the past, pupils with additional needs would have been educated within a special school; recent legislation and policy such as The Standards in Scotlands Schools etc Act 2000, and The Education (Additional Support for Learning) (Scotland) Act, 2004, places a duty on education authorities to meet the needs of all pupils in a mainstream environment, where possible, alongside their peers, including those with additional support needs. Children are described as having additional support needs if they require additional support to enable them to make progress in their learning. My local authority provides guidance to schools for supporting children with autism, with a staged intervention procedure to meet the needs of children and young people on the autistic spectrum, which  acknowledges the role of multi-agencies in developing consistency in both school and home. HMIE (2006) implies that some education staff feel they do not have enough knowledge and understanding of ASD therefore, training for all staff involved in the education of pupils with ASD is an important area to develop. They also argue that parents are not always kept fully informed about the range of provision available for their children, implying there is a greater need for collaboration between parents, teachers and other professionals. The HMIE report highlights a conversation with Ns class teacher (appendix 4), in which she commented that he is a bit strange, and gave the impression that she is unaware of Ns difficulties, therefore, there is a need for more collaboration to develop a good working relationship with the class teacher, pupil and parents, in order to meet his learning needs. Collaboration can mean different things to different people, at different times; on a professional level, through sharing good practice, it can improve effectiveness, self-reflection and teacher learning; on a personal level, it can enhance moral support and confidence. Effective schools need effective communication and collaboration amongst staff, other agents, parents and pupils. (Head 2003) Classroom Practice Powell and Jordan (1997) state that a great deal of what needs to be taught to pupils with autism is out-with the curriculum, such as interaction and communication skills, therefore the needs of the child should determine the curriculum. Most children require some one-to-one teaching, not just to address their difficulties, but also develop their skills and strengths. Pupil N was known to the Speech and Language Services in England prior to moving to Scotland (See appendix 5), and received some one-to-one support in the form of SALT, which continued until 2007. He then received an Individualised Educational Programme (IEP) and support at school level to address his literacy skills. When I started this post a teacher of SFL in January 2010 pupil N was being removed from class along with five other pupils, to work on the literacy program Read and Write Inc (RWI) (See appendix 6), which provides a structured approach to the teaching of phonics and literacy. (Miskin, R, website updated 2010) As I did not know anything about the pupils at the start, I decided to re-assess their reading ability in the RWI programme, and found that although pupil N could read the words, he did not fully understand. I have recently been involved in auditing pupils needs within the school, to identify that require high, medium and low priority support, along with colleagues, with a view to making changes in the way support is offered, and produce an IEP for those who need one. Up until now, all the pupils have been coming out of class for support rather than receiving in-class support. The changes would allow more targeted support to meet the individual needs of the children, within the class, individually, and in small groups. Children have the right to say what they think should happen and have their opinions taken into account when adults are making decisions that affect them (UNICEF, 1991), therefore, the audit included a questionnaire to find out what support and help the pupils felt they needed. When asked, it appeared that pupil N did not fully understand the questions; however, he did say that he liked to come out of class, preferably on his own. (See appendix 7) During the audit, I discovered that the last IEP for pupil N was in 2008, and had not been reviewed. Through collaboration with pupil N, his class teacher and parents, a new IEP has been developed. (See appendix 8) During a conversation with Ns mother at parents evening, she felt his needs were not all being appropriately met, she had not been fully informed of his progress except through yearly class-teacher reports, and was unaware that N had previously received an IEP. A copy of the new IEP has been sent home to parents to allow them to become more involved in Ns learning and development, which should have been done with his previous IEP. The class teacher, parents and I will now take steps in working towards developing strategies to enable N to meet his IEP targets and enhance his learning to make further progress. Conclusion Very little was known about autism during the early part of the twentieth century; however, since the reports by Kanner and Asperger, much research has been carried out. Many hypotheses have been identified and researched, such as Theory of Mind, Weak Central Coherence, Executive Dysfunction and Joint Attention and impairments in the function of various parts of the brain. The MMR vaccine has also been implicated in the cause of autism; though this was dismissed through further research. Although there has been much research into possible causes, and the various theories look as if they may all be related, there does not appear to be one single cause, but rather, many; those with autism seem to display traits from all of the theories in varying degrees. For a diagnosis, there needs to be a display of the characteristics from the Triad of Impairments, however the criteria for diagnosis differs, in that, a person may or may not be diagnosed with autism, depending on whether the ICD-10 or the DSM-IV is used. Although Pupil N does not have a formal ASD diagnosis, he does display many characteristics, and according to HMIE (2006), for best practice, he should receive the support as he would if he was diagnosed. After carrying out the audit of needs for all the pupils with additional needs in the school, it appeared that although pupil N had made much progress in terms of speech and reading, there are other difficulties and strengths, which have not yet been addressed. The new IEP which has been developed in collaboration with the pupil, parents, class teacher and I is the start of working towards meeting those needs. There will be a review in three months time to assess progress, and a continued support and review cycle thereafter.

Saving Private Ryan :: essays research papers

The book I read and am doing a presentation on is called Saving Private Ryan by Max Allen Collins. Saving Private Ryan is about the heroism of soldiers of soldiers and their duty during wartime, World War Two. This story is to remind you, the reader, that war is nothing but hell, orders on the front line can be brutal, and absurd. The story is set in Europe of 1944, as the Nazis are still advancing and taking over cities and countries. On June 6th, 1944, Captain Miller, and hundreds of other men leave Europe to accomplish one mission, Operation Overlord, also known as D-Day. When they get there, there will be a new task awaiting them. In saving Private Ryan, the same character is Capt. Miller. He is the leader of a squad of 7 men on a mission to save Pvt. James Ryan. Capt. Miller is a â€Å"to himself person†. He does not talk much when not in battle, and when he does talk, he is giving out orders. Capt. Miller played a major roll in this book. He was in charge of Company C of the 2nd Ranger Battalion, when landing on Omaha Beach. He then had to lead the 7 men on a long mission to save Private James Ryan. Private James Ryan is a very sociable person. He lost 3 brothers in the war, which is why he is getting sent home. I said he is sociable because when he was rescued towards the end, he enjoyed talking to Capt. Miller very much. He would tell stories about his childhood before he left for basic, with his 3 brothers. There were 7 men under Miller’s Command. They were Sgt. Horvath, Pvt. Reiben, Pvt. Jackson, Pvt. Mellish, Pvt. Caparzo, Medic Wade, and Cpl. Upham. They all fought against the German resistance to save Pvt. Ryan. One metaphor that was said in the novel was â€Å"Sounds like the Midnight Limited†. This was said by Pvt. Caparzo on the boat before they landed on the beaches. He was describing the boat movement as is sailed through the water. After reading Saving Private Ryan by Max Allen Collins, I would say the overall theme of the novel is heroic. I believe the overall mood of the novel is heroic because eight men took on a mission to save one soldiers life. I would say the overall mood/tone of this novel is courage.

Teaching Assistant Essay

Question 1 Describe how you might contribute to a lesson given to a group of seven year old children learning to play percussion instruments. First I would speak to the class teacher I was working with and find out the following points. 1. Which percussion instruments will be needed? 2. How many students will be in the group? 3. Where will we be practising with the instruments? 4, When will the instruments be required? 5. Where the instruments are kept? 6. What is required of me during the lesson (help students? Take photographs or other tasks needing completing) 7. If the member of staff requires me to research some fun activities that can be done to build up the children’s confidence in using the instruments. Firstly I would research the fun confidence building activities if it was required by talking to a musically inclined member of staff or search the internet for age appropriate tasks that lend to the varying skills of the students. After the directions were discussed I would make the space suitable for the lesson, taking into consideration adequate space for the group of students to work comfortably with the instruments with out fear of hitting one another, I would also check the surrounding area for any other dangers present. Next I would gather the necessary equipment making sure to check that it was in working order and safe to be used by the students noting any damaged equipment that I found needing repair or replacing to inform the class teacher, also recording what equipment I have borrowed and when so that others going for the same equipment knew where it was. Then I would set out the instruments in the space the students will be using for this lesson before the teacher is ready to bring the students in so that the lesson could commence with out disturbing the students by making them have to wait for equipment to be set up. During the lesson I would do the tasks discussed with member of staff before the lesson so that they could concentrate on the lesson at hand. Finally after the lesson has finished I would gather up the equipment I had borrowed and check it again to make sure no damage had occurred and it was still in safe working order, return the items and store them safely in there correct storage space noting that the equipment had been returned. Question 2 What might your role be in organising, using and maintaining the learning resources, material and equipment for this percussion lesson? My role organising would be determined in the discussion I would have prior to the lesson with the member of staff which might be to check the amount of working instruments we have available in school and if they are available for the time we require them. I might have to record the lessons for use on a DVD or school website if parental consent has been given, meaning I would need to acquire and be proficient in the use of a digital camera or camcorder. If a CD containing music is to be used I would need to set up a CD player. Any electrical equipment needed I would check to make sure they have been tested recently by a qualified electrician. If a music CD is required to help give the students an idea of keeping timing with a rhythm or beat so this would need to be sourced and checked for scratches, making sure we have the relevant rights to use the material on the CD. In respect of using and maintaining the equipment would check all the available equipment needed for the lesson as much in advance as I could so that I would be able to inform the member of staff of damaged or broken equipment that needs repaired or replaced. Doing so in advance would be of great benefit to the teacher, as then depending on how many instruments we have in safe working order a decision could be made to either source more or maybe get the students to share. After the lesson I would gather the items we used and check them once more before I put them back into storage and inform the teacher of any change in the condition of them. Question 3 Describe how you act in class in order to be an effective role model for the standards of behaviour expected in pupils? In class and also anywhere around school premises I would act in a respectful manner towards all people staff, parent or student meaning I would talk to them politely and listen carefully to what they had to say. Respect also comes in the way to approach a student I would walk over ready to help however possible instead of race over in a hurry to get a job done. I would conduct myself in a calm and collected manner where my voice would sound friendly and my body language would be welcoming so that students could feel relaxed and safe helping them to work well with myself and build a rapport. When working with students who have good standards of behaviour they would be praised verbally in front of there peers with an added bonus of maybe a sticker for a full lesson or full day of good behaviour and contribution in class giving that student a sense of accomplishment. Where as a student who does not practice good standards of behaviour would be asked in front of the other students on the table to think how that action was not appropriate and told it will not be accepted again. I would always talk to the student misbehaving with a sterner voice but never yell or shout as it would be counter productive and a form of bullying in itself, if the behaviour remained unacceptable I would refer them to the class teacher. At anytime with a student or group of students and I had to correct them for example a misspelled or incorrect pronunciation of a word, I would correct them in a way that did not make them feel unimportant or belittled because they got something wrong as it is always better to try and fail than never try at all. I would then make more of an effort to find something that the student does well and give praise for there contribution to the task at hand as well as for trying there best with the thing they got incorrect. My behaviour and approach in class and outside of class towards the people I would come into contact with would always be consistent so that the students would know what I accept in regards to standards of behaviour. Which would also help students think that I would be approachable and not over react or dismiss a problem they may have with there work or in there life. Question 4 What strategies might you employ to encourage pupils to behave appropriately? Describe how you might react to incidents of bullying and violence. I would first off read the schools behaviour policy to get an outline of what is expected from the students along with any notes on consequences and rewards for any actions, also use common knowledge of acceptable behaviour. Consistency in my standards of behaviour would be foremost in a practical example to the students of what behaviour is acceptable; giving them a model they can see to work towards in respect to how they want to act. My consistency would also breed predictability for example when I first see the students in the morning they would be greeted warmly and asked how they were feeling today, nurturing there social and empathetic development while they express there feeling. Respect will be shown at all times to who ever I interact with making it easier for students to show respect towards myself and in turn their peers. I think the student would better understand and be more likely if as a school or a class to make it more personal made a poster of what they consider good and unacceptable behaviour. This way they have contributed and feel the rules are fair as they made them not just told this is what you have to do. Confrontation should always be respectful meaning do not just start shouting at a student for there inappropriate behaviour but develop numerous ways to confront a student by discussing with staff to see which forms they believe work well. In promoting good behaviour I would reward with praise as my main reward and if I believe a student does something extra to what is normal, say opening a day to a member of staff or helping someone in their group comprehend the task they are having difficulty with I would reward them with a sticker which would serve as a visible sign of recognition to a good deed and encourage other children to do the same. The sticker would also make the student who received it feel important and appreciated for their effort, especially knowing that rewards are not given out at random but for consistent good work or behaviour, not forgetting to reward students who are trying but are not as good as others in certain areas to give a confidence boost. If I witnessed or an incident of bullying was brought to my attention I would firstly ensure I was calm and consistent to what my interaction with a student in an everyday matter would be so not to make anyone feel uncomfortable whether it be a child informing, bullying or being bullied. Then I would start a record in a note book at first of people involved and what it was about. The incident would be isolated from the other students so that no one else was involved giving a calmer atmosphere to ascertain what is happening by talking calmly to the students as always practiced in school. Once the situation has calmed down I would inform the class teacher as to what happened giving any notes taken so they could read the account. I would then be inclined to do an assembly on bullying and why it is not accepted in our school so that the messages went out to all the students and did not target any one person. This would be better learned if I got students involved in maybe suggesting how to deal with a situation before it escalates to bullying or if an incident of bullying is observed, making anti bullying posters would be a good task to perform to raise awareness. Question 5 Describe how you might appropriately observe the physical abilities and skills of a nine year old boy. I would discuss with the teacher as to what kind of observation they required as they may want a observation of where the child’s abilities are at the moment or how they develop over a set period of time. Then understanding exactly what is required from the observation and the protocols set out within the school for observing students I would plan the observation. Firstly I would plan to do it either at an active play time or when the students are all doing P.E. so that I can observe the student with out them realising it giving a more accurate account. I would make a sheet for the observation stating date, time started, time finished, student and reason for observation and have boxes for small notes regarding different aspects of physical abilities and skills such as; 1. Confidence setting up a sports game to be played.  2. Hand-eye co-ordination. 3. How they completed the task asked of them 4. Did they require any assistance during the task? 5. The way they interact with others during tasks. 6. Is the child challenged by the tasks or did they find them easy. 7. Concentration of student during task. And a conclusion along with any other points discussed with the teacher before hand. Once the observation had finished I would then make a neater copy of the notes making sure everything recorded is fact and not my interpretation of events. I would keep a blank copy of the sheet used so that I could observe the same aspects each time. At a pre arranged time I would give feedback to the member of staff in which ever way they requested be it written or talked about with or with out the student present. If the student is present I would praise there accomplishments and constructively subject areas that could be improved. The notes taken during the observation would be kept in a safe place for five years designated by the member of staff and would not be open for discussion to anyone respecting the student’s confidentiality.